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This Economic Insights article examines the representation of women in top earnings groups—specifically, the top 0.1%, next 0.9% and next 9% of earners—and the extent to which their under-representation in these groups contributes to the overall gender gap in annual earnings. Trends are documented over almost forty years from 1978 to 2015. 
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Eight years after graduating with university bachelor degrees in 2005, males were earning $27,300 more on average than females who graduated at the same time with the same degrees
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A woman working full time in Canada makes 73.5 cents for every dollar a man makes, a persistent wage gap that continues even though women’s educational attainment has surpassed that of men and amid widespread recognition of the issue among Canadians.
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Wage penalties in overqualified employment are well documented, but little is known regarding the underlying mechanisms. We test two explanations, namely, formal overqualification and a mismatch of occupational skills. We find that some of this wage loss can be explained by a mismatch of skills between the current and training occupation. Further analyses show that mismatches of occupational skills explain the wage loss of the formal overqualification of employees with vocational training. For academics, both types of mismatch are unrelated. We conclude that because of occupational boundaries and more specific occupational skills, the people who are overqualified with vocational training more often work in jobs with lower and different skill requirements.
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With the rapid changes in the economy, such that many of today’s jobs did not even exist a few years ago, there is growing interest in the relationship between education, skills and the labour market.
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Canadian Vocational Association / Association canadienne de la formation professionnelle's insight:
Using the 2007 National Apprenticeship Survey (NAS), this research paper estimates the earnings functions of individuals who completed or discontinued a registered apprenticeship program. Controlling for observed demographic, labour market, and employer characteristics correlated with the two apprenticeship states, it finds earnings differences of approximately 20%. The paper also disaggregates apprentices into four groups on the basis of program completion and certification in order to refine the wage comparisons.
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